The relationship between missionaries and colonial expansion has long been a subject of historical scrutiny. In Kenya, as in much of Africa, missionaries often served as agents of colonial powers, facilitating the establishment and consolidation of European rule. However, the story of resistance to colonialism is equally significant, particularly in the context of indigenous religious movements that emerged as alternatives to both colonial oppression and mainstream Christian missions. One such movement was Dini ya Musambwa (DYM), founded by Elijah Masinde in the 1940s in Bungoma County, Kenya. The rise, vibrancy, and eventual decline of Dini ya Musambwa, situating it within the broader context of African nationalism, colonial resistance, and post-colonial challenges.
The Colonial Context: Resistance and Oppression
The British colonial administration in Kenya faced significant resistance from various ethnic groups, including the Babukusu of present-day Bungoma County. Between 1895 and 1914, the British launched a series of military expeditions to subdue the Babukusu, who were among the first ethnic groups in Kenya to resist colonial rule. The Lumboka and Chetambe massacres of 1894-1895 marked a turning point in the Babukusu’s struggle against colonialism. These brutal confrontations not only decimated the Babukusu but also disrupted their traditional social and political structures, leaving a leadership vacuum in their wake.
With the establishment of colonial rule, the Babukusu were subjected to policies aimed at marginalizing their nationalist spirit and assimilating them into the colonial system. Traditional institutions such as the council of elders, prophets, and medicine men were dismantled, and the community’s social fabric was severely strained. It was in this context of colonial oppression and cultural disintegration that Dini ya Musambwa emerged as a powerful force of resistance and spiritual renewal.
The Rise of Dini ya Musambwa
Elijah Masinde – Omubichachi, the founder of Dini ya Musambwa, was a charismatic leader who rose to prominence during World War II. Born in 1910 in Maeni village, Kimilili Sub-County, Masinde was deeply influenced by the Babukusu’s history of resistance to colonialism. He founded Dini ya Musambwa as a religious movement that sought to revive traditional African spirituality while rejecting the oppressive structures of colonialism and mainstream Christianity.
Elijah Masinde – Omibichachi, worked and worked with Joash Walumoli – Omubuya, Siraeli Khaoya – Omuktuika – Kitang’ and Wekuke – Omuafu. The four remain the pillars of Dini ya Musambwa to date.
Dini ya Musambwa, which translates to “Spiritual Church,” emphasized the veneration of ancestors and the worship of Wele, the Most High God in BaBukusu cosmology. Masinde’s teachings drew parallels between traditional African religious practices and Christian doctrines, arguing that African spirituality was not inferior to Christianity. He urged his followers to reject colonial ways, including the conscription of African youths to fight in European wars, and to resist the cultural and economic exploitation imposed by colonial rulers.
The movement’s activities centered around Mount Elgon, which was equated with Mount Zion in biblical tradition. Pilgrimages to the mountain, traditional sacrifices, and communal prayers became central to Dini ya Musambwa’s practices. Masinde’s message resonated deeply with the BaBukusu and other communities in Western Kenya, attracting a large following and earning him comparisons to biblical figures like Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed.
Dini ya Musambwa as a Vehicle of Resistance
Dini ya Musambwa was not merely a religious movement; it was also a political force that challenged colonial authority and advocated for African independence. Masinde’s leadership and the movement’s activities were deeply intertwined with the broader nationalist struggle in Kenya. The movement aligned itself with other anti-colonial organizations, such as the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA), the Bukusu Union (B.U.), and the African Elected Members Organization (AEMO), to push for the end of colonial rule.
The movement’s resistance to colonialism was not limited to spiritual or symbolic acts. Masinde and his followers actively opposed colonial policies, including forced labor, taxation, and land alienation. Their defiance often brought them into direct conflict with colonial authorities, leading to arrests, imprisonment, and violent crackdowns. For instance, in 1948, the colonial government proscribed Dini ya Musambwa following the Malakisi Massacre, in which 11 people were killed. Masinde and other leaders were imprisoned, and the movement was banned, only to resurface after Kenya’s independence in 1963.
Challenges and Decline
Despite its initial vibrancy, Dini ya Musambwa faced numerous challenges that contributed to its decline. One of the most significant blows to the movement was the death of Elijah Masinde in 1987. Masinde’s charismatic leadership had been the driving force behind the movement, and his passing left a leadership vacuum that the movement struggled to fill. The absence of a centralized leadership structure, coupled with Masinde’s teachings that discouraged “earthly leadership,” further complicated the movement’s ability to sustain itself.
Another major challenge was the continued marginalization of Dini ya Musambwa by both colonial and post-colonial governments. The movement was banned multiple times, first in 1948 and again in 1968, when the Kenyan government under President Jomo Kenyatta accused Masinde of inciting people against the state. Although the 2010 Kenyan Constitution guaranteed freedom of worship, Dini ya Musambwa remained a proscribed organization, operating in a legal gray area that limited its growth and influence.
Modernization and the rise of other religious movements also contributed to the decline of Dini ya Musambwa. The movement’s traditional practices and strict adherence to its founding principles made it less appealing to younger generations and women, who were increasingly drawn to more inclusive and modern religious organizations. Additionally, the movement’s focus on rural communities and its resistance to formal education and modernization further isolated it from mainstream society.
Legacy and Contributions
Despite its decline, Dini ya Musambwa left a lasting legacy in Kenya’s history. The movement played a crucial role in the anti-colonial struggle, providing a platform for the Babukusu and other communities to articulate their grievances and resist colonial oppression. Masinde’s emphasis on education as a tool for liberation also had a profound impact. He advocated for universal, free education that was not tied to religious indoctrination, and he established several schools, including Matili Village Polytechnic and Bituyu Primary School, which continue to serve their communities today.
Dini ya Musambwa also highlighted the importance of African spirituality and cultural identity in the face of colonialism and Westernization. By reviving traditional religious practices and challenging the dominance of mainstream Christianity, the movement affirmed the value of African heritage and contributed to the broader discourse on decolonization and cultural revival.
Conclusion: A Movement of Resilience and Resistance
Dini ya Musambwa stands as a testament to the resilience and resistance of the Babukusu and other African communities in the face of colonialism. The movement’s emphasis on cultural revival, spiritual renewal, and political resistance made it a significant force in Kenya’s nationalist struggle. However, its decline highlights the challenges faced by indigenous religious movements in navigating the complexities of modernization, government repression, and changing societal values.
The story of Dini ya Musambwa is not just a historical narrative; it is a reminder of the enduring power of grassroots movements to challenge oppression and advocate for justice. As Kenya continues to grapple with issues of identity, governance, and social inequality, the legacy of Dini ya Musambwa offers valuable lessons on the importance of cultural preservation, collective action, and the pursuit of liberation.
Recognition and Documentation: The contributions of Dini ya Musambwa to Kenya’s nationalist struggle should be formally recognized and documented in the country’s historical narratives.
Cultural Revival: Efforts should be made to revive and preserve traditional African spiritual practices, ensuring that they are passed down to future generations.
Inclusive Leadership: Indigenous religious movements should adopt more inclusive leadership structures to ensure the participation of women and youth.
Education and Awareness: Public education campaigns should highlight the role of movements like Dini ya Musambwa in Kenya’s history, fostering a greater appreciation for the country’s diverse cultural heritage.
By understanding and honoring the legacy of Dini ya Musambwa, Kenya can continue to draw inspiration from its past as it navigates the challenges of the present and future.